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Recent Advances in Mineral Nutrition of Goats
By: George F. W. Haenlein |
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Abstract:
Introduction: Minerals activate enzymes, are essential co-factors of metabolic reactions, function as carriers of proteins, regulate digestion, respiration, water balance, muscle reaction, nerve transmission, skeletal strength, pH balance, even mental balance, protect against diseases, are antagonists or synergists of other elements and play a vital role in resistance, adaptation and evolution of new breeds and strains. Levels of requirements as well as thresholds of deficiency and toxicity vary with age, sex, production level, activity level, species and genetic strain of the animal. This discussion focuses on goats, since it must be recognized that mineral requirements are to a large extend species and breed specific and can only be extrapolated from research with other species and breeds within limits or in a general way (Table 1). Significant species differences have been reported for Cu, I, Mo, As, among other elements (Bell, 1959; Haenlein, 1980a, 1991a; Anke and Szentmihalyi, 1986; Devendra, 1989). In case of Mo, goats will tolerate more than 300 mg Mo/kg DM in feed intake, while sheep tolerate only 30 mg/kg DM and cattle will already suffer from diarrhea at 10 mg Mo/kg DM (Falke and Anke, 1987). In case of Cu, toxicity symptoms are noted in sheep at 10-20 mg Cu/kg DM feed intake, while cattle tolerate up to 100 mg Cu/kg DM. Data are still needed but observations have indicated, that goats are tolerant of much higher Cu levels than sheep (Table 1) (Anke and Szentmihalyi, 1986; Zervas et al., 1989). In case of I, radioactively marked I showed that goats transfer 22 percent of diet I into milk vs. 8 percent in cows (Groppel et al. 1988). Colostrum from normal goats also had much higher I contents (3662 nmol/l) than from normal cows (416 nmol/l). Thyroids from goats were lighter than from sheep on equal feed supplies of I, which may indicate that more I is available in sheep for synthesis of T4/T3, and that goats are more sensitive to low I supplies (Groppel et al. 1989). Contents of less than 300 mcg I/kg DM white hair are indicative of insufficient I supplies for growing, pregnant and lactating Swiss goats, while for sheep the limit is 200 mcg I/kg DM white wool. Goat kids with less than 0.6 mg I/kg white hair, but calves with less than 1.8 mg I/kg black hair during week one have probably an I deficiency (Groppel et al. 1988). Supplies of minerals are influenced by climate and soil on which feed plants grew, also by stage of maturity of the plants and its parts (Fiedler and Heinze, 1985; Szentmihalyi et al. 1985; Kalac, 1986). Cu contents in red clover have been reported to decrease from 13 to 8 mg/kg DM, in fescue grass from 11 to 6, in forage rye from 9 to 3, when sampled on April 30 vs. June 11 (Anke and Szentmihalyi, 1986). There are also many mineral interactions in the feed ration influencing net absorption (Haenlein, 1987). Mineral ions compete for anionic ligands to form insoluble precipitates, mineral ions compete for transport proteins, competing mineral ions block enzyme reactions, vitamins affect mineral absorption, fiber in the ration depresses mineral absorption, chelation between amino acids influences mineral absorption, antimetabolites in the G-I tract play a role, mineral absorption availability varies with the physical and chemical configuration of the mineral source, forage to grain ratios, water contents in the feed, acid-base balance, and feed additives all influence mineral gross and net absorption, i.e., digestibility minus excretions into the urine, feces and perspiration. Symptoms of mineral deficiencies can be general, several or very specific (Table 2). Surveys around the world, have indicated prevalences in certain countries of mineral deficiencies and excesses, which can be helpful in focusing on alleviating programs (Table 3). Such soil and plant surveys must be related to metabolic uniqueness of different animal species, and it is recognized that animal tissue analyses are more definitive diagnostic tools, although different tissues have different affinities to macro- and microelements, some have none, and therefore have different indicator values (Table 4). Mineral contents in feed resources, their strengths and weaknesses are nevertheless important to know, especially for goats, where browse, forbs and weeds, which have not been studied analytically very much, play such a vital feeding role (Devendra, 1990). Mineral supplementation on this basis has yielded improvement in milk production, reproduction, feed intake and reduced heat stress in other species (McDowell et al. 1983; Harris, 1991). It also has been pointed out (Miller, 1983), that even in the best studied species, cattle, there is no academic agreement as to the feeding recommendation levels of minerals, and there is less agreement and knowledge about the other less studied species, such as the goat. Excesses even of macroelements, such as Ca, can have serious consequences, which besides many other better known interferences will reduce clotting ability of blood and cause hemorrhagic conditions (Hall et al. 1991). Research interest in the role of minerals for the improvement of livestock productivity, especially goats, is growing worldwide. Ramirez et al. (1990, 1991) showed tremendous variations in the amounts of daily voluntary mineral consumption by free-ranging Mexican goats (Table 5), which differed between certain months by as much as a factor of 5. If voluntary intakes and plant contents varied that widely during the year, it follows that the goats must have had at least subclinical deficiencies in some months, e.g., for Cu, Mn and Zn, and excesses in other months, e.g., for Fe, Mg, K and Na. What needs to be clarified is net absorption, which has been shown in other animal species to vary widely, and thus influence gross amounts required to be fed daily as well as gross plant contents to satisfy daily intake without supplementation (Table 6). Specific research papers on goats since the last major reviews (NRC, 1981; Kessler, 1981; Lamand, 1981; Haenlein, 1980b, 1987) will be discussed and have been presented in parts (Haenlein, 1991b).
Nutrition of Specific Elements - Calcium
Phosphorus
Magnesium
Sodium
Potassium
Iodine
Fluorine Milk yield was not affected by F deficiency in goats (Anke and Groppel, 1989), but they had significantly higher fat and protein contents after 35 days in lactation. F requirements are still unknown, but they are assumed to be 1 to 2 mg F/kg ration DM with a minimum of 1 mg F/kg DM. Only intrauterine depletions lead to growth depressions, which means that the essentiality of F needs further studies.
Sulfur
Zinc Deficiency of Zn increased Cu contents, especially in the brain, liver and uterus of female and male goats (Gruen et al. 1986). Similar mineral interrelationships were also noted in Cu deficiency, but less pronounced, meaning that Cu absorption increases in Zn deficiency but not vice versa. Other mineral interrelations were observed when feeding bentonite to goats which increased absorption of Fe but decreased that of Cu and Zn (Schwarz and Werner, 1987).
Manganese
Copper
Iron
Cadmium
Arsenic
Selenium
Lithium
Cobalt
Molybdenum Deficiency in Mo leads to growth depression, disturbed reproduction and increased mortality (Anke and Risch, 1989). Molybdopterin is the Mo cofactor for xanthine dehydrogenase/oxidase, aldehyde oxidase and sulfite oxidase enzymes. The requirements of growing, pregnant and lactating goats were calculated to be at 100 mcg/kg ration DM/day.
Lead
Chromium
Nickel
Vanadium
Aluminum
Bromine
Overall
(Anke and Szentmihalyi, 1986).
x = positive; - = negative.
x = excess; - = deficient. (Sillanpaeae, 1986).
(Anke et al., 1988).
(Ramirez et al., 1990, 1991).
(Hartmans, 1986) (studies with cows).
Controls received 3.4 g P/kg ration DM/day; deficient goats received 2.0 g P/kg ration
DM/day for 3 years.
(1) Mostly at 4th - 5th month of pregnancy.
(1) Adult goats; control kids had higher contents, e.g. kidney 737 mcg As/kg DM.
(1) midlactation milk; beginning lactation: 512 mcg/kg DM
Blood parameter contents at time of sampling; Se injections after 71 and 344 days in
trial.
(a) 0.7 percent of DM intake if at 3 percent of BW; (Kessler,1991; Haenlein, 1987). |
About the author: The following references are attributed to this article:
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